For patients with AT, seven of these genera maintained their association with EST, including Pyramidobacter. However, after AT, the difference in β-diversities was diminished. EST induced a marked shift in the biliary microbial composition. A cluster of biliary bacteria was associated with a history of EST, and Pyramidobacter was specific to EST.Multiple scarce nutrients, such as iron and nickel, are essential for bacterial growth. Gram-negative bacteria secrete chelators to bind these nutrients from the environment competitively. The transport of the resulting complexes into bacterial cells is mediated by TonB-dependent transporters (TBDTs) located at the outer membrane in Gram-negative bacteria. The characteristics of TBDTs, including surface exposure, protective immunogenicity, wide distribution, inducible expression in vivo, and essential roles in pathogenicity, make them excellent candidates for vaccine development. The possible application of a large number of TBDTs in immune control of the corresponding pathogens has been recently investigated. This paper summarizes the latest progresses and current major issues in the application.Entamoeba histolytica is an invasive enteric protozoan, whose infections are associated to high morbidity and mortality rates. However, only less than 10% of infected patients develop invasive amebiasis. The ability of E. histolytica to adapt to the intestinal microenvironment could be determinant in triggering pathogenic behavior. Indeed, during chronic inflammation, the vagus nerve limits the immune response through the anti-inflammatory reflex, which includes acetylcholine (ACh) as one of the predominant neurotransmitters at the infection site. Consequently, the response of E. histolytica trophozoites to ACh could be implicated in the establishment of invasive disease. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of ACh on E. histolytica virulence. Methods include binding detection of ACh to plasma membrane, quantification of the relative expression of virulence factors by RT-PCR and western blot, evaluation of the effect of ACh in different cellular processes related to E. histolytica pathogenesis, and assessment of the capability of E. histolytica to migrate and form hepatic abscesses in hamsters. Results demonstrated that E. histolytica trophozoites bind ACh on their membrane and show a clear increase of the expression of virulence factors, that were upregulated upon stimulation with the neurotransmitter. ACh treatment increased the expression of L220, Gal/GalNAc lectin heavy subunit (170 kDa), amebapore C, cysteine proteinase 2 (ehcp-a2), and cysteine proteinase 5 (ehcp-a5). Moreover, erythrophagocytosis, cytotoxicity, and actin cytoskeleton remodeling were augmented after ACh treatment. Likewise, by assessing the formation of amebic liver abscess, we found that stimulated trophozoites to develop greater hamster hepatic lesions with multiple granulomas. In conclusion, ACh enhanced parasite pathogenicity by upregulating diverse virulence factors, thereby contributing to disease severity, and could be linked to the establishment of invasive amebiasis.Periodontal disease is a chronic infectious disease associated with a variety of bacteria, which can cause damage to the periodontal support structure and affect a variety of systemic system diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, non-alcoholic fatty liver, and Alzheimer’s disease. Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis) is the most important pathogenic bacteria for periodontal disease. It can produce outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) and release them into the environment, playing an important role in its pathogenesis. This article focuses on P. gingivalis OMVs, reviews its production and regulation, virulence components, mode of action and related diseases, with a view to providing new ideas for the prevention and treatment of diseases related to P. gingivalis infections.Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is an important pathogen in immunocompromised individuals and neonates, and a paradigm for viral immune evasion. We previously developed a quantitative proteomic approach that identified 133 proteins degraded during the early phase of HCMV infection, including known and novel antiviral factors. The majority were rescued from degradation by MG132, which is known to inhibit lysosomal cathepsins in addition to the proteasome. Global definition of the precise mechanisms of host protein degradation is important both to improve our understanding of viral biology, and to inform novel antiviral therapeutic strategies. U0126 cost We therefore developed and optimized a multiplexed comparative proteomic analysis using the selective proteasome inhibitor bortezomib in addition to MG132, to provide a global mechanistic view of protein degradation. Of proteins rescued from degradation by MG132, 34-47 proteins were also rescued by bortezomib, suggesting both that the predominant mechanism of protein degradation employed by HCMV is via the proteasome, and that alternative pathways for degradation are nevertheless important. Our approach and data will enable improved mechanistic understanding of HCMV and other viruses, and provide a shortlist of candidate restriction factors for further analysis.Group B Streptococcus (GBS) is an important etiological agent of maternal and neonatal infections as well as postpartum women and individuals with impaired immunity. We developed and evaluated a rapid classification method for sequence types (STs) of GBS based on statistic models with Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Time-of Flight Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-TOF/MS). Whole-cell lysates MALDI-TOF/MS analysis was performed on 235 well-characterized GBS isolates from neonatal invasive infections in a multi-center study in China between 2015 and 2017. Mass spectra belonging to major STs (ST10, ST12, ST17, ST19, ST23) were selected for model generation and validation. Recognition and cross validation values were calculated by Genetic Algorithm-K Nearest Neighbor (GA-KNN), Supervised Neural Network (SNN), QuickClassifier (QC) to select models with the best performance for validation of diagnostic efficiency. Informative peaks were further screened through peak statistical analysis, ST subtyping MSP peak data and mass spectrum visualization.